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  • Video Methods in Qualitative Research

    The world told is a different world to the world shown.

    – Günter Kress ,  2003

    Within a nanosecond of the emergence of new communications technology, some intrepid researcher will try to find a way to use it as a part of their inquiries. As a case in point, the first anthropological film fragment was shot by Alfred Haddon in 1898 in the Torres Strait Islands—only three years after the development of the first portable moving picture camera (Banks, 2007; McNiven, 2017). One can only imagine the practical challenges involved with carting a cine-camera into a hot, humid, remote part of the world. And we can only imagine his motivation for doing so—perhaps to capture some visual facets of the people and culture that could not be fully conveyed with words.

    In contrast, today researchers can record audio as well as visuals by simply pulling mobile devices from their pockets and pressing a button. Instead of text-heavy websites and blogs, now communications include short recordings. This trend is present in personal communications, with videos embedded into text messaging and emails, and in public communications with videos offered via news and social media sites. Whether creating or collecting videos, like Dr. Haddon, researchers must decide why the moving picture is appropriate given the study’s purpose. They must determine what they will include within the frame—and what is left unseen.

    Let’s look at the choices made by authors of four open-access research articles:

    These studies represent four types of video research methods as described by Whiting et al. (2016):

    • Participatory video research, which uses participant-generated videos, such as video diaries,
    • Videography, which entails filming people in the field as a way to document their activities,
    • Video content analysis, which involves analysis of material not recorded by the researcher, or
    • Video elicitation, which uses footage (either created for this purpose by the researcher, or extant video) to prompt discussion.

    In “Who’s Behind the Lens? A Reflexive Analysis of Roles in Participatory Video Research,” Whiting et al. (2016) used participatory video research methods. This team of researchers examined the “three-way relationship between researcher, participant, and videocam” in order to understand the roles of researchers and participants, and the materiality of methods using video technology and video images (Whiting et al., 2016, p. 3). Their 45 participants were asked to keep a video diary for one week, with a focus on the ways they took and switched between different roles in their work and private lives (p. 9). Once the diary assignment was completed, researchers quickly debriefed the participants to solicit their initial reflections on the experience. After reviewing the video data, the researchers conducted interviews with participants to discuss emerging themes. Finally, a presentation was made to participants via a webinar to gather their views on the findings and their recommendations for further development of the analysis and study (p. 11).

    The example of videography from Collier and Wyer (2016) shows that lines between these approaches sometimes blur. They did video recording in the field, with participant involvement. They describe this as “’video reflexivity,’ involving the reviewing of video footage with participants to make
    sense of visual data that they have gathered or feature in themselves.”

    Dekavalla (2022) conducted a thematic content analysis of confessional YouTube videos, to deliver in-depth analysis of discursive patterns in the data.

    Li and Ho (2019) pointed out that “video recordings … make it possible for researchers to iteratively approach the context-specific meanings behind their expressions and generate practical knowledge responding to their needs.” They used video elicitation in focus groups with professionals to discuss intervention sessions with practitioner-researchers. The researcher followed these group discussions with one-one interviews.

    Read the full articles to learn more about these exemplars.

    Collecting and analyzing video data from YouTube or TikTok

    Researchers can easily access user-generated public videos. See these collections of open access articles about quantitative and qualitative approaches to collecting and analyzing video data. The articles collected for this post look specifically at research using the YouTube or TikTok platforms.

    Dekavalla, M. (2022). Facework in Confessional Videos by YouTube Content Creators. Convergence, 28(3), 854-866. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565221085812

    Abstract. This article analyses the role of facework in the discourse of confessional YouTube videos by female fashion and beauty content creators, where they disclose personal problems, and offer viewers advice. It uses thematic analysis to identify discursive tactics that protect viewers’ face. The article argues that the parasocial nature of the connection that these videos attempt to establish with an audience that content creators know little about makes it important for them to reflexively adapt to these viewers’ needs for fellowship and autonomy. Their disclosures may be intended to create closeness, but at the same time they need to cater for distance and prepare the ground for this content to be received as well as possible. However, just like the connection that the videos seek to establish, the facework they contain is also parasocially situated: the videos speak to an imagined viewer’s need for inclusion and this viewer’s possible objections, as these are perceived by the content creator. The article contributes to a better understanding of the construction of closeness in this genre of mediated discourse.

    Petersen-Wagner, R., & Lee Ludvigsen, J. A. (2023). Digital transformations in a platform society: A comparative analysis of European football leagues as YouTube complementors. Convergence, 29(5), 1330-1351. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565221132705

    Abstract. The prevalence of digital technologies and emerging social media platforms in the 21st century has altered the ways in which individuals and groups produce and consume elite football (soccer). Elite football is no longer consumed merely through ‘traditional’ media as television or radio. By comparing the ‘big five’ football leagues (the first divisions in England, France, Germany, Italy and Spain), this article examines how these leagues have adapted to an algorithm logic (monetization strategies/content strategies) on YouTube. Drawing from data collected (64,247 YouTube videos) using YouTube Data Tools, we argue that the ‘big five’s’ content creation on YouTube work in a complementary manner to ‘traditional’ platforms, allowing for the testing and adaption of their content practices based on instant consumer feedback. This article makes a contribution to the literature on the symbiotic media/sport relationship with its analysis and insights into the digital transformations occurring in a ‘platform society’.

    Rieder, B., Borra, E., Coromina, Ò., & Matamoros-Fernández, A. (2023). Making a Living in the Creator Economy: A Large-Scale Study of Linking on YouTube. Social Media + Society, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051231180628

    Abstract. This article explores monetization and networking strategies within the consolidating creator economy. Through a large-scale study of linking practices on YouTube, we investigate how creators seek to build their online presence across multiple platforms and widen their income streams. In particular, we build on a near-complete sample of 153,000 “elite” YouTube channels with at least 100,000 subscribers, retrieved at the end of 2019, and investigate the URLs found in 137 million video descriptions to analyze traces of these strategies. We first situate our study within relevant literature around the creator economy, the role of platforms, and issues such as social capital building and economic precarity. We then outline our data and analytical approach, followed by a presentation of our findings. The article finishes with a discussion on how monetization and networking strategies via placing URLs in video descriptions have become more important over time, but also differ substantially between channel sizes, content categories, and geographic locations. Our empirical analysis shows that YouTube, as a highly unequal platformed media system, thrives on the economic pressures it exerts on its creators.

    Schellewald, A. (2023). Understanding the popularity and affordances of TikTok through user experiences. Media, Culture & Society, 45(8), 1568-1582. https://doi.org/10.1177/01634437221144562

    Abstract. In this paper I discuss the affordances and popularity of the short-video app TikTok from an audience studies point of view. I do so by drawing on findings from ethnographic fieldwork with young adult TikTok users based in the United Kingdom that was conducted in 2020 and 2021. I trace how using the app, specifically scrolling through the TikTok For You Page, the app’s algorithmic content feed, became a fixed part of the everyday routines of young adults. I show how TikTok appealed to them as a convenient means of escape and relief that they were unable to find elsewhere during and beyond times of lockdown. Further, I highlight the complex nature of TikTok as an app and the active role that users play in imagining and appropriating the app’s affordances as meaningful parts of their everyday social life. Closing the paper, I reflect on future directions of TikTok scholarship by stressing the importance of situated audience studies.

    Sued, G. E., & Rodríguez Rodríguez, A. (2023). Partners or workers? Mexican app deliverers on YouTube and TikTok. Convergence, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/13548565231179963

    Abstract. This article seeks to understand how app delivery workers construct their collective identity through the digital platforms of YouTube and TikTok. Said identity construction occurs in the context of the social controversy surrounding their status as workers without labor rights or as independent partners of digital platforms. To this end, we collected 977 videos and their metadata and analyzed them via cross-platform digital methods. The findings reveal that app delivery workers construct their collective identity through the interplay of two factors. The first is the identity narratives created by delivery workers as video bloggers. The second is the recognition narratives created by different associated actors, such as accountants, media, universities and research centers, and content creators. Through these interactions, the narrative of delivery workers as independent partners acquires more algorithmic strength and visibility than those that discuss their status as employees and their lack of labor rights. Audiovisual technology also works as an instrument to reach individual agency and face the precariousness of daily life.

    Sui W, Sui A, Rhodes RE. What to watch: Practical considerations and strategies for using YouTube for research. DIGITAL HEALTH. 2022;8. doi:10.1177/20552076221123707

    Abstract. YouTube is the second-most visited webpage in the world and boasts over 2 billion users and 500 h of videos uploaded every hour. Despite this popularity, relatively few articles have discussed the practical use of searching and YouTube as a research tool and source of data. The purpose of our paper is to propose a step-by-step schematic for utilizing the YouTube platform. Our discussions include (a) when/whether to use YouTube for research; (b) selecting an appropriate research design; (c) how to search for YouTube data; (d) what data can be pulled from YouTube; and (e) the contextual limitations for interpreting YouTube data. Further, we provide practical strategies and considerations when searching, collecting, or interpreting YouTube data. These discussions are informed by our own work using the YouTube platform. Effective methods used to search for YouTube data are likely to extend beyond simply searching the platform itself; the search strategy and search results themselves should also be documented. While not exhaustive, we feel these considerations and strategies present themselves as a conceptual foothold for future research using the YouTube platform.

  • Using Photos in Online Research

    Online communications are multimodal…and online interviews can be too.

    Our online conversations, whether private or public, often revolve around photographs or media. We snap a picture and attach it to a text message: let me show you what I see. We comment on a video we saw on a social media site: this story resonates with me. We use the visual mode to build a sense of presence: you can’t be here to see my baby, this beautiful sunrise, or this pile of books I just bought, but we feel closer when we see the same images.

    We want to share something about the people, the places, and/or the ideas that are important to us. Details, context, colors, facial expressions, relationships, would take time to describe. As the old saying goes, “a picture is worth a thousand words.” Typically, interviewers are accustomed to using words: we ask questions, we prompt follow-up responses, but the same principles of visual communication are true for research exchanges. Lapenta (2011) summarized:

    The general consensus in this literature is that the use of images and/or film in the interview process elicits ‘deep and interesting talk’ (Harper, 2002: 23) on subjects otherwise too complex to explore (Rose, 2001; Pink, 2006). Photographs can convey contents that words can only approximately represent, and can represent subjects that might be invisible to the researcher but visible to the interviewee, triggering unforeseen meanings and interpretations (Schwartz, 1989).

    The nature of the method is also described as intrinsically collaborative (Banks, 2001; Pink, 2006). As originally noted by the Collier and Collier (1986), and later by others (Banks, 2001; Harper, 2002; Lapenta, 2004; Pink, 2006), interpreting the meanings of images can be explored in a conversation between the researcher and the respondent. Images can also be the response to a conversation, as when respondents are asked to photograph or film their own lives (Levy, 1991; Clark, 1999; Chalfen and Rich, 2004; Pink, 2006) to discuss their subjects and meanings later.

    The general consensus in this literature is that the use of images and/or film in the interview process elicits ‘deep and interesting talk’ (Harper, 2002: 23) on subjects otherwise too complex to explore (Rose, 2001; Pink, 2006). Photographs can convey contents that words can only approximately represent, and can represent subjects that might be invisible to the researcher but visible to the interviewee, triggering unforeseen meanings and interpretations (Schwartz, 1989).

    The nature of the method is also described as intrinsically collaborative (Banks, 2001; Pink, 2006). As originally noted by the Collier and Collier (1986), and later by others (Banks, 2001; Harper, 2002; Lapenta, 2004; Pink, 2006), interpreting the meanings of images can be explored in a conversation between the researcher and the respondent. Images can also be the response to a conversation, as when respondents are asked to photograph or film their own lives (Levy, 1991; Clark, 1999; Chalfen and Rich, 2004; Pink, 2006) to discuss their subjects and meanings later.

    Researchers who want “deep and interesting talk” have two main options in terms of the source of photographs, and naturally, each has pros and cons:

    Images from the researcher: The researcher can take or find photographs of the aspects of the phenomena they want to discuss. The advantage is that the researcher owns the rights, seeks permission, or selects royalty-free images and can thus use the photos in publications or presentations without revealing participants’ identities. The researcher will use them in a semi-structured style of interview: the same photos are used in all interviews, providing continuity across the study. The disadvantage is that participants might not identify with or relate to the photographs.

    Images from the participant: The researcher invites the participants to generate photographs on a topic or in response to a prompt. Participants can submit the photos in advance of the interview, or share them during the interview. The interview style is less structured, since each participant discusses their own photos, meaning each interview will be unique. The advantage is that the photos are personalized to the participants’ experiences and perceptions, so will likely generate a rich discussion. The disadvantage is that when photos contain images of the participants and other people, they cannot be used in publications without jeopardizing anonymity.

    We could look at the choices like this:

    • Conventional interview: Tell me about your family.
    • Photo elicitation interview with images from the researcher: Tell me how your family is similar or different from the one in this photograph.
    • Photo elicitation interview with images from the participant: Show me a picture of your family.

    Use photos to communicate with participants who are less verbal

    As you can see from the selection of articles listed below, photo elicitation is a beneficial method for collecting data from participants who have cognitive problems, with children or youth, or with people whose first language is not shared by the researcher.

    Photo elicitation goes digital

    There are lots of creative opportunities to use photos in online interviews! Images can be easily exchanged, viewed, and discussed in an online interview. Images can be sent in advance via email, text, shared online folder, or post in a forum. Interviewers using videoconference tools can share their screens so images are viewed together. In chat interviews, allowing researchers to see what catches the participant’s attention in the moment.

    Research articles about photo elicitation

    Some of the open-access examples below describe online research, other articles discuss approaches that can be ported into an online interview.

    Bailey, K. A., Dagenais, M., & Gammage, K. L. (2021). Is a Picture Worth a Thousand Words? Using Photo-Elicitation to Study Body Image in Middle-to-Older Age Women With and Without Multiple Sclerosis. Qualitative Health Research, 31(8), 1542–1554. https://doi.org/10.1177/10497323211014830
    Abstract. In this study, we explored how women with varying relationships to disability and aging used photographs to represent their body image experiences. Seven middle-aged and older adult women with and without multiple sclerosis were asked to provide up to 10 photographs that represented their body image and complete a one-on-one interview. We used reflexive thematic analysis to develop themes and interpret the findings. Overall, the women expressed not only complicated relationships with their bodies, represented through symbolism, scrutiny of body features (e.g., posture, varicose veins, and arthritis) but also deep reflection linked to positive body image and resilience. These findings revealed not only the nuanced experiences women have with aging, disability, and gender but also the commonly experienced ingrained views of body appearance as each participant illustrated a difficult negotiation with the aesthetic dimension of their body image. Finally, we provide important implications of the use of visual methods in body image research.

    Epstein, I., Stevens, B., McKeever, P., & Baruchel, S. (2006). Photo Elicitation Interview (PEI): Using Photos to Elicit Children’s Perspectives. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(3), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500301

    Abstract. When conducting photo elicitation interviews (PEI), researchers introduce photographs into the interview context. Although PEI has been employed across a wide variety of disciplines and participants, little has been written about the use of photographs in interviews with children. In this article, the authors review the use of PEI in a research study that explored the perspectives on camp of children with cancer. In particular, they review some of the methodological and ethical challenges, including (a) who should take the photographs and (b) how the photographs should be integrated into the interview. Although some limitations exist, PEI in its various forms can challenge participants, trigger memory, lead to new perspectives, and assist with building trust and rapport.

    Glaw, X., Inder, K., Kable, A., & Hazelton, M. (2017). Visual Methodologies in Qualitative Research: Autophotography and Photo Elicitation Applied to Mental Health Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917748215

    Abstract. Visual methodologies are a collection of methods used to understand and interpret images. These methods have been used for a long time in anthropology and sociology; however, they are a relatively new way to research for the majority of disciplines, especially health research. Two effective visual methodologies that could be used in health research are autophotography and photo elicitation. Autophotography is asking participants to take photographs of their environment and then using the photographs as actual data. Autophotography captures the world through the participant’s eyes with subsequent knowledge production. Photo elicitation is using photographs or other visual mediums in an interview to generate verbal discussion to create data and knowledge. Different layers of meaning can be discovered as this method evokes deep emotions, memories, and ideas. Photo elicitation interviews contribute to trustworthiness and rigor of the findings through member checking.

    Kyololo, O. M., Stevens, B. J., & Songok, J. (2023). Photo-Elicitation Technique: Utility and Challenges in Clinical Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 22. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231165714

    Abstract. Photo-elicitation interview techniques, a method in which researchers incorporate images to enrich the interview experience, have been gaining traction in numerous spheres of research over the last two decades. Little is, however, written about the utility of the technique in studies involving vulnerable populations in clinical contexts. Drawing on research where researcher-generated photographs were used to elicit mothers’ experiences of pain and perceptions about use of pain-relieving strategies in critically ill infants, we aim to demonstrate (a) how the method can be used to generate harmonized and detailed accounts of experiences from diverse groups of participants of limited literacy levels, (b) the ethical and methodological consideration when employing photo-elicitation interview techniques and the (c) possible limitations of employing photo-elicitation interview techniques in clinical research.

    Marshall, A. N., Walton, Q. L., Eigege, C. Y., Daundasekara, S. S., & Hernandez, D. C. (2023). Comparing In-Person and Online Modalities for Photo Elicitation Interviews Among a Vulnerable Population: Recruitment, Retention, and Data Collection Applications. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 22. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231205794

    Abstract. The purpose of the current study was to use Orsmond and Cohn’s feasibility framework to compare two methods of collecting photo elicitation interviews: (1) in-person and (2) online among low-income community college students. We described the feasibility of the recruitment and retention procedures and compared the participants’ characteristics and the type of data obtained by data collection modality. Focus group participants (n = 34) were invited to participate in photo elicitation interviews regarding barriers to food access and associated material hardships. Prior to the pandemic, photo elicitation interviews were conducted in-person. Due to pandemic-related stay-at-home policies, photo elicitation interviews shifted to a video conferencing platform. Descriptive and bivariate analyses were used to compare the two data collection methods in terms of sample characteristics, the average length of each interview, and the number and type of photos submitted. Of 34 recruited participants, 28 participated in photo elicitation interviews (82.4% response rate; n = 13 in-person; n = 15 online) with a mean age of 39.75 years (range: 19–62). No significant differences were found in socio-demographic characteristics between interview modality groups. In both online and in-person photo elicitation groups, participants were more likely to be female, non-Hispanic Black, single, and unemployed. Overall, both modalities were found to be feasible to recruit and retain participants and collect data from low-income, community college students. We found similar data in terms of photographs, and similar codes and themes were generated from the interview data across both modalities. Using both modalities provided an opportunity to promote equity in research through inclusion of hard-to-reach populations who may experience barriers to participation such as transportation or childcare. This study can inform recruitment and retention efforts for quantitative and qualitative research, and data collection efforts for photo elicitation interviews. The lessons learned are critical to generating rich data and advancing research conducted among vulnerable populations.

    Platzer, F., Steverink, N., Haan, M., de Greef, M., & Goedendorp, M. (2021). The Bigger Picture: Research Strategy for a Photo-Elicitation Study Investigating Positive Health Perceptions of Older Adults With Low Socioeconomic Status. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069211040950

    Abstract. Research focussing on older adults of low socioeconomic status (SES) faces several methodological challenges, including high rates of non-response and drop-out. In addition, older adults of low SES tend to be less willing to participate in research and are more likely to experience cognitive impairments and literacy problems. Photo-elicitation studies do not require high levels of literacy, and they might therefore be suitable for use in research with older adults of low SES. To date, however, little is known about setting up such studies with this target group. Our aim was to demonstrate how we systematically set up a researcher-driven photo-elicitation study to generate greater insight into the positive health perceptions of older adults of low SES. Our strategy consisted of three phases: development, testing and execution. In this article, we discuss each step of the research strategy and describe the limitations and strengths of our study. We also formulate recommendations for further research using photo-elicitation methods with this target group. Based on the results of this study, we conclude that the use of researcher-driven photo-elicitation is a powerful tool for enhancing understanding with regard to positive health perceptions and experiences of older adults of low SES. The usefulness of the method is particularly dependent on the careful development and testing of the study.

    Poku, B. A., Caress, A.-L., & Kirk, S. (2019). The Opportunities and Challenges of Using Photo-Elicitation in Child-Centered Constructivist Grounded Theory Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919851627

    Abstract. In the last three decades, there has been a growing interest in listening to children’s voices in child health research. Ensuring an appropriate level of dialogical engagement with children calls for participatory methods. Auto-driven photo-elicitation interviews (PEIs) are a powerful approach to obtain rich data from children. This article discusses the opportunities and challenges of using auto-driven PEIs in a health-related child-centered constructivist grounded theory study conducted in a poor-resourced country. Our experience shows that while the approach is effective for facilitating co-construction of data with children and for addressing the ethical and methodological issues associated with child-centered research in the context of a developing country, it is narrow on its own. Broadening the term to “picture-elicitation interviews” to allow for the inclusion of other forms of images would make the method more adaptable and inclusive. This would give children the flexibility of choosing pictorial options that best suit them and also help child participants and researchers address the practical and cultural challenges associated with the use of auto-driven PEI in a poor-resourced country.

    Raby, R., Lehmann, W., Helleiner, J., & Easterbrook, R. (2018). Reflections on Using Participant-Generated, Digital Photo-Elicitation in Research With Young Canadians About Their First Part-Time Jobs. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406918790681

    Abstract. Participant-generated photo-elicitation usually involves inviting participants to take photographs, which are then discussed during a subsequent interview or in a focus group. This approach can provide participants with the opportunity to bring their own content and interests into research. Following other child and youth researchers, we were drawn to the potential of participant-generated photo-elicitation to offer a methodological counterweight to existing inequalities between adult researchers and younger participants. In this article, we reflect on our use of one-on-one, participant-generated photo-elicitation interviews in a Canadian-based research project looking at young people’s earliest paid work. We discuss some of the challenges faced when it came to gaining institutional ethics approval and also report on how the method was unexpectedly but productively altered by participants’ use of publicly accessible Internet images to convey aspects of their work. Overall, we conclude that participant-generated photo-elicitation democratized the research process and deepened our insights into young people’s early work and offer some recommendations for future photo-elicitation research.

    Tonge, J. et al. “Using Photo-Elicitation to Explore Place Attachment in a Remote Setting.” Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 11.1 (2013): 41–50. Web.

    Abstract. People are often attracted to unique natural environments, but what makes them continually return to these locations, especially when considerable time and effort are required to get there? This paper discusses the methods and findings of a research project aimed at identifying and exploring how visitors develop an attachment to the remote Ningaloo Marine Park in north-western Australia. This Marine Park attracts a high percentage of repeat visitors (55%) and in order to determine the complex aspects contributing to this attachment, photo-elicitation was employed. Photoelicitation is a qualitative technique where participants are asked to take photographs relating to the concept under study, and these are then used as triggers for underlying memories and feelings during a subsequent interview. For this study, participants were provided with digital cameras to take photographs of why they like visiting the Ningaloo Reef and what it was that made them return. Given this remote location and the inability to get photographs developed in reasonable timeframes, digital cameras were used instead of the disposable cameras more commonly used in this type of study. After a few days, the cameras were returned, and photographs uploaded on the researcher’s laptop computer with interviews conducted while viewing the photographs. Over a period of four weeks, during the peak visitor period, 30 participants took over 200 photographs and provided over 15 hours of interview recordings. Key aspects contributing to place attachment included the beauty of the physical environment, reef and marine based activities, social bonding with family and friends and enjoying a challenging though rewarding experience. By using a technique familiar to people on holidays, i.e. taking photographs, a method was invoked that people could engage with easily without the research impinging on their holiday experience.

    Zhang, Y., & Hennebry-Leung, M. (2023). A Review of Using Photo-Elicitation Interviews in Qualitative Education Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 22. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231185456

    Abstract. Educational research has sometimes been criticized for its seeming lack of relevance to classroom reality and its subsequent inability to inform pedagogical practices. Such criticism has prompted researchers to consider research methods that may better approximate reality. Among these methods, photo-elicitation interviews (PEI) offer a visual dimension to elicit lived experiences, feelings, and thoughts in real educational contexts, and to enhance researchers’ understanding of educational practitioners’ and students’ experiences in real classrooms and school communities. This review examines the application of PEI to explore educational practitioners’ and students’ lived experiences and perceptions in educational contexts. Specifically, this paper examines the existing educational studies adopting PEI in order to identify the affordances of the method, the challenges it has presented for researchers in the education field, and critical considerations for researchers who may be planning to use the method. Specifically, this review addresses the following three questions: 1. What has PEI contributed to previous investigations of participants’ lived experiences and perceptions in educational contexts? 2. What methodological challenges have previous researchers encountered when utilizing PEI? and 3. How can methodological concerns be addressed when designing and implementing PEI to understand participants’ lived experiences and perceptions? We provide an up-to-date critical examination and discussion of PEI to better inform researchers seeking to develop the use of the method in future investigations in the education field.

  • Positionality in Online Studies

    How do research questions relate to your position as an online researcher?

    Are you formulating questions based on your understanding or experience with the problem? Or are you formulating questions based on what you have learned from studying past scholarship about the problem presented in the literature? There is not a right or wrong answer to this question about what are commonly called insider or outsider positions. However, a lack of honesty is a violation of research ethics. The important point is to be self-aware and transparent about your position, and how it influences your research design decisions.

    Inside or Outside in an Online Study?

    As a researcher, you should know from the earliest design stage where you stand in relation to the study. You must be able to explain whether, or to what extent, they take an outside or inside position—and how that position adds value to the study.

    Qualitative researchers who interact with participants value the closeness and contact these methods allow. Qualitative researchers who use extant data value access to posts and discussions that exhibit robust interactions or detailed knowledge of the subject. In both cases some knowledge of online groups, sites or the topic being studied can enable access that other researchers might not have.

    How close is too close? At what point does the degree of intimacy with the organization, group or participant, or the familiarity with the research problem jeopardize the researcher’s ability to carry out the study with integrity? When does the researcher’s closeness to the study invite unwanted criticisms about conflicts of interest? When does the researcher’s knowledge of the research problem mean it is hard to be objective and avoid bias that taints the findings?

    Robert Stake (1995) described the outsider position as etic. Researchers working from an etic position identify research problems or questions from the literature. Stake (1995) described the insider position as emic. Researchers working from an emic position draw on their own knowledge of issues and problems to identify research questions.

    VanDeVen (2007, pp. 269–270) contrasts the outside researcher as a ‘detached, impartial onlooker who gathers data’ with the inside researcher who is a ‘participant immersed in the actions and experiences within the system being studied’. VanDeVen (2007) describes the value found in complementarity of knowledge gained from research that uses the insider perspective to provide a concrete grounding in the research problem in a particular context or situation together with research from an outside perspective that uses empirical evidence to build a broader understanding of the scope of the problem.

    Some methodologies inherently call for an insider or outsider role for the researcher. Researchers are necessarily insiders when they conduct autoethnographies, participant observations or action research. Some insiders contribute data in the form of reflective journal entries or field notes to complement data collected from participants. Researchers are typically outsiders when they conduct research using observations or archival or historical records analysis.

    Insider (Emic) and Outsider (Etic) E-Research Positions

    In online research the nature of insider and outsider perspectives takes a somewhat different interpretation than in other kinds of research. Some degree of insider knowledge may be needed to access research settings or to understand the situation, culture, and type of experience being studied. An insider who understands the culture and norms of the group may have an easier time recruiting participants or gaining permission to use archives and posted data. Insiders who understand the styles and modes of communication can develop rapport and trust with virtual research participants.

    At the same time, if studying a community where the researcher is a member, they might be recognized, which could mean others either contribute more or less. Such a researcher must guard against having too much familiarity with the online setting and challenge pre-existing assumptions to probe more deeply and uncover difficulties or conflicts they might prefer to ignore. The outsider can bring broader, objective understandings of the research problem into the study.

    Depending on the topic of the research or the nature of the discussion thread or community, the researcher as objective social scientist may have more credibility than another member of the group. Alternatively, might an etic researcher look for ways to gain emic insights by joining or participating in the online group, social media or online community—which would raise additional ethical questions?

    Either/Or Thinking Is Not Enough

    As with many areas of qualitative research, thinking in terms of polar options not always adequate since many studies can be conducted from a full range of positions. In a discussion of an online ethnographic study, Paechter draws on Labaree’s earlier work and observes:

    Labaree (2002) suggests that, while the mainly outsider researcher has to ‘go native’ in order to understand the local culture, insiders have, by corollary, to ‘go observationalist’, distancing themselves introspectively from phenomena. Insider positioning also necessitates the observation of oneself and one’s relation to the research process; in this way, research makes outsiders of us all. (Paechter, 2012, p. 75)

    This quote suggests that in some situations the researcher may vacillate between insider and outsider perspectives at different stages of the study. The researcher may have inside knowledge, access or experience without conducting the study from an exclusively emic stance. The insider may begin with questions that emerged from experience, then generate new areas of inquiry after consulting the literature. This continuum illustrates nuanced options more comprehensively than does an either/or model.

    Let’s think about positionality as a continuum rather than as a choice between either/or opposites. This continuum shows outsider, etic positions and insider, emic positions. Salmons (2022).

    The post is excerpted and adapted from Doing Qualitative Research Online.

  • Tech Tools and Online Interviews

    What role do information and communications technologies (ICTs) play?

    The saying goes, “If a farmer fills his barn with grain, he gets mice. If he leaves it empty, he gets actors.” Like actors, researchers are always looking for an opening. If a means for communication opens, intrepid researchers will find a way to adopt it to their own objectives, shaking up the academic status quo along the way. (Salmons, 2010)

    That is how I prefaced my first book, Online Interviews in Real Time* and since then qualitative and quantitative researchers have blown the roof off the proverbial barn. We’ve discovered diverse ways to use technology to inspire or further research. We’ve seen various types of e-research emerge, with their own approaches, variously called Internet research, online research, virtual research or digital research. I’ve categorized approaches by the way information and communications technologies (ICTs) are used as the medium, setting, and/or research phenomenon (Salmons, 2022).

    What role do information and communication technologies play in the study? (Salmons, 2022)
    • Some researchers use ICTs as a medium through which they reach and interact with participants, be it in 1-1 or group interviews, or online questionnaires or surveys. Researchers use ICTs as a medium through which to access archives, datasets, and other contemporary or historical records.
    • Other researchers are interested in communication via a platform, program, social networking site or online community, virtual world or game. These researchers use ICTs as the setting. Within an electronic setting users could be discussing experiences or events in the “real” world or the connected world. The setting is selected because it is a place where people are discussing the problem central to the study. The researcher might collect data directly (with appropriate consent or agreements) or use the setting to recruit participants. The setting may have limitations or affordances that allow for visual, verbal, and/or text-based interactions.
    • A third type of researcher are interested in the programs, sites, or platforms themselves, in the ways humans use technology, how the features or characteristics of the ICTs work. For these researchers, the technology itself is central to the research phenomenon they want to understand.

    Hypothetical example:

    For example, let’s say a researcher is interested in local grassroots politics. She could use the Internet as a medium, a communication channel for interviews with activists. She doesn’t care what features the ICT has, she simply wants an accessible tool.

    If she sees that activists are using particular channels to inform the public and generate interest, she might decide to focus on a particular setting for activists’ mobilization, perhaps studying posts on YouTube, Facebook, Medium, or blogs. She might use an electronic setting for an experiment, or for experiential or creative methods.

    Alternatively, she might be interested in the user interfaces and features that allow users with no knowledge of programming to create and promote their own content. She might want to compare uses of text-based versus multimedia posts, the process of virality, linkages across platforms, use of mobile devices, or other ICT phenomena related to activists’ uses of technology. This researcher or research team might combine one or more options, and mix qualitative and quantitative approaches to gain a comprehensive perspective on the research problem.

    These resources might be helpful if you are planning to collect data by conducting interviews online:

    • Qualitative Online Interviews includes guidance on designing and conducting studies using a wide range of synchronous and asynchronous technologies for interviews, creative and visual methods, and observations. 
    • Cases in Online Interview Research includes contributed examples that use a wide range of technologies, from blogs to videoconferencing to virtual worlds, with analysis of decisions and methods.
    • Doing Qualitative Research Online goes a step further, with inclusion of methods that use extant, creative and performative ways to use technology in data collection. The second edition of Doing Qualitative Research Online is now available. Find more resources for teaching and learning here. Find short video explanations for key concepts in these books on this YouTube playlist.
    • The Little Quick Fix book, Gather Your Data Online offers an overview of key concepts and practical tips. This book is the basis for a new interactive course on Sage Campus.Use the code COMMUNIT24 for 25% off through December 31, 2024 when you purchase the book from Sage.

    Access e-books and download chapters!

    Doing Qualitative Research Online and Cases in Online Interview Research are available on SAGE Research Methods. That means you can access the books in full, and download chapters as PDF files. In addition, see the broad E-Research Reading List, Social Media Research Reading List and the E-Interview Research Reading List. If you would like to access these SAGE e-books, articles, case studies, videos, and datasets, explore SAGE Research Methods through your academic library, or with a free trial.

    Open access articles about methods for online interviews

    Lindsay, S. (2022). A Comparative Analysis of Data Quality in Online Zoom Versus Phone Interviews: An Example of Youth With and Without Disabilities. SAGE Open, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221140098

    Abstract. Qualitative researchers are increasingly using online data collection methods, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. I compared the data quality (i.e., interview duration, average number of themes and sub-themes, and inaudible words) of 34 interviews (29 conducted by Zoom (16 with camera on, 13 camera off) and 5 conducted by phone) drawn from a study focusing on youth’s coping experiences during the pandemic. Findings showed that phone interviews had a longer duration compared to Zoom. However, phone interviews had a similar average word count to Zoom interviews (with the camera on). Zoom interviews conducted with the camera off were shorter in duration than interviews with the camera on. The number of themes was similar across the different interview formats but there were fewer sub-themes for Zoom interviews with the camera off. The findings suggest that Zoom interviews conducted with the camera off could affect the data quality. This research also emphasizes the importance of giving participants choice in the format of their interview to allow for optimal sharing of experiences while enhancing the equity, diversity and inclusion of the participants.

    Lobe, B., Morgan, D. L., & Hoffman, K. (2022). A Systematic Comparison of In-Person and Video-Based Online Interviewing. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221127068

    Abstract. Due to the increasing popularity of online qualitative interviewing methods, we provide a systematically organized evaluation of their advantages and disadvantages in comparison to traditional in-person interviews. In particular, we describe how individual interviews, dyadic interviews, and focus groups operate in both face-to-face and videoconferencing modes. This produces five different areas for comparison: logistics and budget, ethics, recruitment, research design, and interviewing and moderating. We conclude each section with set of recommendations, and conclude with directions for future research in online interviewing.

    Opara, V., Spangsdorf, S., & Ryan, M. K. (2023). Reflecting on the use of Google Docs for online interviews: Innovation in qualitative data collection. Qualitative Research, 23(3), 561-578. https://doi.org/10.1177/14687941211045192

    Abstract. Google Docs is a widely used online word processing software. Despite its broad popularity in business and education, Google Docs is under-utilised as a tool to facilitate qualitative interviews within research. In this article, we reflect on our experiences as two PhDs using Google Docs to conduct synchronous, online, written interviews. We present two case studies, which, to our knowledge, are the first to utilise Google Docs to conduct web-based written interviews. In doing so, we (a) outline the development and implementation of the methodology, (b) highlight the key themes we identified when considering the benefits and challenges of conducting interviews using this technology and (c) discuss possible future uses of the methodology. We argue that synchronous web-based written interviews via Google Docs offer unprecedented opportunities for qualitative research.

    Open access articles about methods for online focus groups

    Brown, C. A., Revette, A. C., de Ferranti, S. D., Fontenot, H. B., & Gooding, H. C. (2021). Conducting Web-Based Focus Groups With Adolescents and Young Adults. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406921996872

    Abstract. This methodologic paper aims to update researchers working with adolescents and young adults on the potentials and pitfalls associated with web-based qualitative research. We present a case study of synchronous web-based focus groups with 35 adolescents and young women ages 15–24 years old recruited from a clinical sample for a mixed methods study of heart disease awareness. We contrast this with two other studies, one using asynchronous web-based focus groups with 30 transgender youth ages 13 to 24 years old and another using synchronous web-based focus groups with 48 young men who have sex with men ages 18 to 26 years old, both recruited via social media. We describe general and logistical considerations, technical platform considerations, and ethical, regulatory, and research considerations associated with web-based qualitative research. In an era of technology ubiquity and dependence, researchers should consider web-based focus groups a potential qualitative research tool, especially when working with youth.

    Frey, T. K., & Bloch, B. S. (2023). Using Microsoft Teams to Facilitate Asynchronous Online Focus Groups. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 22. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231211251

    Abstract. The COVID-19 pandemic presented unique challenges to researchers engaged in qualitative research. Such methods often require the use of in-person methods of data collection and were greatly interrupted during this time of global emergency. Yet, navigating this altered terrain presented opportunities to reflect on the traditional methodological landscape. In this paper, we reflect on the use of Microsoft Teams to facilitate multiple asynchronous online focus groups. We draw on the findings from a study of researchers focused on translational medicine, who work in disparate locations and often have conflicting schedules, to show how the use of this approach facilitated active communication between individuals who otherwise rarely interact. Specifically, we reflect on five ways that Microsoft Teams both enhanced and challenged traditional focus group practice. We consider how (1) conversational sequence, (2) discussion moderation, (3) nonverbal cues, (4) supporting information, and (5) technical competencies relate to using this approach. This results in several reflections intended to help future researchers prepare to facilitate asynchronous online focus groups using Teams. Specifically, we highlight our experiences in terms of participant interaction, iterative reflections, and data management. Ultimately, we argue that this approach adds an important and powerful tool to the qualitative methodological toolkit.

    Willemsen, R. F., Aardoom, J. J., Chavannes, N. H., & Versluis, A. (2023). Online synchronous focus group interviews: Practical considerations. Qualitative Research, 23(6), 1810-1820. https://doi.org/10.1177/14687941221110161

    Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, a sudden shift was warranted from face-to-face to digital interviewing. This shift is in line with the existing trend of digitalization. However, limited literature is available on how to conduct focus group interviews online successfully. This research note provides practical guidelines, tips, and considerations for setting up and conducting online synchronous focus groups for eight relevant factors: preparation, the number of participants, the duration, a break, the usability of the online platform, the interaction between participants and researchers, support and roles of the research team, and privacy considerations. These guidelines were formulated based on the available literature and our own positive hands-on experiences. We consider online focus groups to be an excellent option when taking into account the considerations related to the eight factors.

  • Teaching research methods online: Informal or semi-formal professional development


    By Janet Salmons, Andy Nobes, Nicola Pallitt and Tony Carr

    Abstract

    Many inter-related practices are involved in designing, planning, conducting, and disseminating research. It is not enough to learn the discrete elements; researchers must know how the pieces fit together. When studying research methods as part of an academic programme, students learn to carry out research projects by working within a curricular framework of assignments, dissertation or thesis requirements, and research supervision. The need to learn new methods and approaches continues beyond formal learning, however, and the researcher must acquire new expertise without the structure of a degree program or the advice of a supervisor. The co-authors of this chapter explored the informal online opportunities for developing research expertise offered by five non-profit and for-profit, staff or volunteer-led organisations: AuthorAID, and The International Research Collaborative for Established and Emerging Scholars collaboration, NVivo, SAGE Methodspace, and the Textbook and Academic Authors Association. The cases representing each organisation show a variety of self-directed and collaborative and instructor-led and peer-to-peer options appropriate for emerging or experienced researchers. Recommendations are offered for organisations interested in offering online professional development opportunities for emerging researchers.

    These questions guided our study:

    Salmons, J., Nobes, A., Pallitt, N., & Carr , T. (2023). “Chapter 23: Teaching research methods online: informal or semi-formal professional development”. In Handbook of Teaching and Learning Social Research Methods, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. Editor: Melanie Nind https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800884274.00032
    Note: This is the original submitted version

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